Abstract
This study investigates the synergistic stabilization of clayey ferralitic soil (bar soil) from southern Benin using a combination of crushed granite (CG) and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW). The aim was to develop a sustainable alternative to conventional high-percentage granite stabilization by valorizing industrial waste. Twelve soil mixtures were formulated with varying proportions of CG (10–25%) and PCW (7.5–12.5%). Their performance was evaluated through standardized geotechnical tests, including particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, Modified Proctor compaction, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The results indicate that the incorporation of PCW significantly improves the soil's properties: it reduces the fines content and plasticity index, lowers the optimum moisture content, and increases the maximum dry density and bearing capacity, yielding a CBR value as high as 78%. The optimal mixture (25% CG + 12.5% PCW) exceeded the performance of a conventional mix with 70% CG, enabling a 64% reduction in granite consumption. This approach demonstrates a technically sound and sustainable stabilization strategy, enhancing particle size distribution and hydraulic stability while providing an eco-friendly and economical solution for constructing pavement foundation and base layers in tropical regions.
Keywords
Stabilization, Ceramic Waste, Crushed Granite, Bar Soil, Circular Economy
1. Introduction
The stabilization of clayey ferralitic soils, such as bar soil, prevalent in Southern Benin, represents a critical geotechnical challenge for sustainable road infrastructure development in West Africa. These ferralitic soils, while abundant, are characterized by high plasticity, significant swelling and shrinkage behavior under varying moisture conditions, and inadequate bearing capacity in their natural state, rendering them unsuitable for direct use in foundation or base layers without chemical or mechanical improvement
| [4] | Millogo, Y., Morel, J. C., Traore, K., & Ouedraogo, R. (2012). Microstructure, geotechnical and mechanical characteristics of quicklime-lateritic gravels mixtures used in road construction. Construction and Building Materials, 26, 663-669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.069 |
[4]
. Traditional stabilization methods have predominantly relied on the incorporation of imported granular materials, such as crushed granite (CG), to enhance mechanical properties by providing a stable mineral skeleton and reducing water sensitivity
| [5] | Biswal, D. R., Sahoo, U. C., & Dash, S. R. (2021). Strength and durability characteristics of cement-stabilized granular materials with recycled ceramic waste. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 33(9), 04021222. |
[5]
.
While effective, this conventional approach raises pressing environmental and economic concerns. The extensive quarrying of granite is associated with substantial landscape degradation, high energy consumption, and increased greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, particularly in regions reliant on imported aggregates
| [6] | Singh, S., & Ransinchung, G. D. (2018). A review on the utilization of waste materials in the stabilization of expansive soils. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2018. |
[6]
. Furthermore, the cost of acquiring, processing, and transporting these natural materials significantly inflates the budget of road projects, which is often a critical constraint in developing economies
| [5] | Biswal, D. R., Sahoo, U. C., & Dash, S. R. (2021). Strength and durability characteristics of cement-stabilized granular materials with recycled ceramic waste. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 33(9), 04021222. |
[5]
.
In response to these challenges, the principles of the circular economy are gaining traction in geotechnical engineering, promoting the valorization of industrial and agricultural wastes as alternative construction materials
| [6] | Singh, S., & Ransinchung, G. D. (2018). A review on the utilization of waste materials in the stabilization of expansive soils. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2018. |
[6]
. This paradigm shift not only mitigates the environmental footprint of infrastructure projects but also offers a sustainable solution for waste management. In this context, pulverized ceramic waste (PCW) - a by-product from the manufacturing and disposal of terracotta tiles, bricks, and roof tiles - emerges as a promising candidate. Ceramic waste possesses a favorable granulometry, with a high fraction of fine, non-plastic particles, and potential pozzolanic properties that can enhance soil stabilization by improving particle packing, reducing inter-particle voids, and possibly inducing secondary cementation reactions over time
| [8] | Sabat, A. K. (2012). Stabilization of Expansive Soil Using Waste Ceramic Dust, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, vol. 17, no. Bund. Z, pp. 3915–3926. |
| [9] | Md. Akhtar Hossain, Md. Rashel Afride, Naimul Haque Nayem. Improvement of Strength and Consolidation Properties of Clayey Soil Using Ceramic Dust. American Journal of Civil Engineering. Vol. 7, No. 2, 2019, pp. 41-46. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20190702.11 |
[8, 9]
.
Recent studies have begun to explore the efficacy of ceramic waste in soil improvement. For instance,
| [1] | A. A. Ajayi-Banji, D. A. Jenyo, M. A. Adegbile, T. D. Akpenpuun, J. Bello, A. O. Ajimo and S. Sujitha. (2018). utilization of ceramic ware waste as complementary aggregate in hollow masonry unit production. AZOJETE 14(1): 41-53. www.azojete.com.ng |
[1]
demonstrated its use as a complementary aggregate in masonry units, while
| [2] | Kenna F. and Archbold, P. 2014. Ceramic waste sludge as a partial cement replacement. Civil Engineering Research in Ireland, Queens University Belfast, pp. 1-6. |
[2]
investigated ceramic waste sludge as a partial cement replacement. Other researchers, such as Medina et al. (2012)
have shown the successful reuse of sanitary ceramic waste in eco-efficient concretes, and Sabat (2012)
| [8] | Sabat, A. K. (2012). Stabilization of Expansive Soil Using Waste Ceramic Dust, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, vol. 17, no. Bund. Z, pp. 3915–3926. |
[8]
demonstrated the stabilization of expansive soil using waste ceramic dust. However, a systematic comparative analysis evaluating the synergistic effect of PCW with traditional granular aggregates like crushed granite for the stabilization of specific tropical soils, such as bar soil, remains underexplored.
This study aims to fill this research gap by conducting a rigorous comparative analysis between two distinct formulation strategies:
1) Conventional mixtures of bar soil and crushed granite (CG).
2) Optimized ternary mixtures of bar soil, crushed granite, and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW).
The performance of these mixtures is evaluated through a comprehensive suite of geotechnical tests, including Atterberg limits, Modified Proctor compaction (maximum dry density and optimum moisture content), California Bearing Ratio (CBR), and particle size distribution (specifically the percentage of fines passing the 80 µm sieve). The overarching goal is to quantify the potential of PCW not merely as a filler but as a value-adding component that can reduce the reliance on natural granite, thereby offering a technically sound, economically viable, and environmentally responsible stabilization strategy. Ultimately, this research seeks to provide validated mix designs that comply with the technical specifications of the Experimental and Study Center for Building and Public Works (CEBTP) for road foundation layers, contributing to more sustainable infrastructure development in tropical regions.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Bar Soil
The soil sample used in this study, classified as bar soil (sandy clayey soil), was collected from a site in Tori-Dokanmey, located within the commune of Tori-Bossito in southern Benin (
Figure 1). Geographically, the municipality of Tori-Bossito is situated in the Atlantic Department, approximately 40 km northwest of Cotonou. It is bounded by Allada to the north, Ouidah to the south, Zè and Abomey-Calavi to the east, and Kpomassè to the west, spanning latitudes 6°25'–6°37' N and longitudes 2°01'–2°17' E.
In order to assess the potential of bar soil for use in road surfacing applications, a detailed geotechnical (
Table 1) and chemical (
Table 2) characterization was carried out. The geotechnical study included tests of particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, modified Proctor compaction, and California bearing ratio (CBR), all performed in accordance with recognized standards. These tests provided a better understanding of the soil's particle size distribution, plasticity, compaction behavior, and bearing capacity. Chemically, the soil was analyzed to identify the presence and proportions of key oxides such as silicon dioxide (SiO
2), aluminum oxide (Al
2O
3), and iron oxides (Fe
2O
3), which are known to influence the mechanical performance and stabilization potential of soils
| [34] | CEN (2003) Non-destructive testing – X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials – Part 1: General principles. EN 13925-1: 2003. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels. |
[34]
. The results confirmed that the untreated soil has low bearing capacity and moderate plasticity, requiring stabilization to meet the technical specifications required for use in road construction.
Table 1. Geotechnical Properties of the Bar Soil (Sandy Clayey Soil).
sandy clayey soil | | Value | Standard deviation |
Particle Size Distribution Analysis | Dmax (mm) | 2 | 0 |
2 mm (%) | 100 | 0 |
0.08 mm (%) | 48 | 1 |
Atterberg limits | WL | 54 | 1.01 |
WP | 32 | 1.73 |
IP | 22 | 2.3 |
Methylene blue value | | 1 | 0.01 |
Dry density | yd (g/cm3) | 1.9 | 0.26 |
Optimal water content | ωopt (%) | 12.1 | 0.06 |
Maximum dry density | ydmax (g/cm3) | 2 | 0.1 |
CBR index (ICBR) after 96 hours of soaking | 95% Opt | 23 | 1.53 |
100% Opt | 41 | 1.52 |
Figure 1. Geographical location of the soil sampling site in Tori-Dokanmey, Benin.
Table 2. Chemical Composition of the Bar Soil.
Oxide | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | K2O | Na2O | CaO | MgO | H2O structural |
Estimated proportion (%) | 62 | 24 | 2 | 1 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 10 |
Figure 2. Visual description of the untreated bar soil sample used in the study.
2.1.2. Granite Aggregates
In this study, the granite aggregates used had a particle size distribution of 0/31.5 mm and were sourced from the Dan quarry in the Republic of Benin. The village of Dan is located in the municipality of Djidja, in the Zou Department, approximately 30 km from the city of Bohicon. Geographically, the municipality of Djidja lies between latitudes 7°10' and 7°40' North and longitudes 1°04' and 2°10' East. The Dan quarry itself is located at 7°21'44" N and 2°06'38" E.
Unlike artisanal methods, this quarry is equipped with industrial facilities for rock extraction and crushing. The crushed materials are then screened and stockpiled according to their particle size distribution, as shown in
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Dan quarry granite aggregates: (a) View of the industrial crushing and screening equipment; (b) Stockpile of the 0/31.5 mm aggregates used in this study.
Table 3 summarizes the key geotechnical parameters of the granite aggregates sourced from the Dan quarry.
Table 3. Geotechnical Characteristics of the Crushed Granite Aggregates (0/31.5 mm).
N° | Particle Size Distribution Analysis | Sand equivlent: ES (%) | [26] | AFNOR (2012) NF EN 933-8+A1: 2012. Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates – Part 8: Assessment of fines – Sand equivalent test. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[26] | Methylene Blue Value (VBS) |
Maximum diameter: Dmax (mm) | D=2 mm (%) | D=0.08 mm (%) |
Test 1 | 31.5 | 28 | 12 | 55 | 0.15 |
Test 2 | 31.5 | 27 | 8 | 58 | 0.18 |
Test 3 | 31.5 | 28 | 9 | 60 | 0.16 |
Mean | 31.5 | 27.7 | 9.7 | 57.7 | 0.16 |
Std Dev | 0 | 0.6 | 2.1 | 2.52 | 0.015 |
N° | Proctor modifié | Indice CBR après 96h d'imbibition | MDE (%) | [30] | AFNOR (2011) NF EN 1097-1: 2011. Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates – Part 1: Determination of the resistance to wear (Micro-Deval). Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[30] | LA (%) | [29] | AFNOR (2020) NF EN 1097-2: 2020. Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates – Part 2: Methods for the determination of resistance to fragmentation. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[29] |
Optimal water content: Ωopt (%) | Optimal dry density: YOPM (g/cm3) | 90% OPM (optimum) | 95% OPM | 100% OPM |
Test 1 | 8.2 | 2.2 | 51 | 76 | 102 | 6 | 22.7 |
Test 2 | 5.8 | 2.24 | 49 | 74 | 98 | 9 | 24 |
Test 3 | 6 | 2.3 | 45 | 71 | 99 | 9 | 24.2 |
Mean | 6.67 | 2.25 | 48.3 | 73.7 | 99.7 | 8 | 23.6 |
Std Dev | 1.33 | 0.05 | 3.06 | 2.52 | 2.08 | 1.73 | 0.81 |
2.1.3. Ceramic Waste
The ceramic waste used in this study was prepared through a controlled, multi-stage pulverization process. Initially, broken ceramic tile residues were collected from construction sites and waste disposal areas (
Figure 4a), followed by a sorting phase to eliminate non-ceramic impurities and retain only clean, homogeneous fragments. These fragments were first crushed using a jaw crusher to reduce them to medium-sized particles. Subsequently, the material was finely pulverized using a hammer mill. The resulting powder was then sieved through a 0.08 mm mesh to isolate the fine fraction suitable for the experiments. Coarser particles retained on the sieve were reintroduced into the milling process to ensure uniform granulometry and consistency of the final product (
Figure 4b).
Figure 4. Preparation stages of pulverized ceramic waste (PCW): (a) Sorted raw ceramic tile waste collected from construction sites; (b) Final pulverized ceramic waste (PCW) powder after milling and sieving through a 0.08 mm mesh.
Table 4. Chemical Composition of the Pulverized Ceramic Waste.
Oxide | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | K2O | Na2O | CaO | MgO |
Estimated (%) | 70 | 20 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1.2 | 0.8 |
The chemical composition of pulverized ceramic waste (
Table 4) reveals a high content of silicon dioxide (SiO
2) and aluminum oxide (Al
2O
3), indicating significant reactivity potential in alkaline environments, particularly in the presence of lime. These properties suggest that the material is suitable for use as a pozzolanic additive in the stabilization of clay-rich soils, such as clay soils.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Sampling Method
Bar soil and crushed granite aggregate samples were collected in accordance with XP P94-202: 1995. Following sampling, the materials were air-dried under laboratory conditions prior to geotechnical characterization.
2.2.2. Formulation Method
The preparation of the soil–aggregate mixtures followed a structured seven-step procedure, outlined as follows:
Drying: Samples of bar soil and crushed granite aggregates were either oven-dried at 50 °C for two hours or air-dried at room temperature until a stable moisture condition was achieved.
Mix Design: The proportions of pulverized ceramic waste (PCW) were selected based on previous research indicating that a minimum content of 7.5% is necessary to significantly improve the geotechnical properties of clayey soil for use in flexible pavement foundation layers. The chosen percentages—7.5%, 10%, and 12.5%—were designed to evaluate the effect of increasing the pozzolanic and filler content. Concurrently, granite aggregates (GA) of 0/31.5 mm were incorporated at rates of 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% to assess their synergistic effect with PCW in enhancing the soil's granular skeleton and mechanical strength. By combining these proportions, twelve distinct mixtures were formulated for testing, as presented in
Table 5.
Table 5. Mix Design Proportions for the Stabilized Soil Mixtures.
Mixtures | Different mixing ratios |
M1 | BS + 10% CG + 7.5% PCW |
M2 | BS +10% CG +10% PCW |
M3 | BS +10% CG +12.5% PCW |
M4 | BS +15% CG +7.5% PCW |
M5 | BS +15% CG +10% PCW |
M6 | BS +15% CG +12.5% PCW |
M7 | BS +20% CG +7.5% PCW |
M8 | BS +20% CG +10% PCW |
M9 | BS +20% CG +12.5% PCW |
M10 | BS +25% CG +7.5% PCW |
M11 | BS +25% CG +10% PCW |
M12 | BS +25% CG +12.5% PCW |
BS: Bar Soil; CG: Crushed Granite; PCW: Pulverized ceramic waste
For the control mixtures used for comparison, we varied the proportion of granite aggregate between 30% and 70%.
Batch Calculation: The quantities of bar soil, pulverized ceramic waste, and granite aggregates required for each type of test were calculated accordingly.
Moisture Content Determination: The optimum water content for each formulation was determined.
Sample Preparation: Specific quantities of the mixtures were measured and prepared for the geotechnical tests.
Homogenization: Manual mixing was carried out to ensure uniformity while avoiding alteration in particle size distribution due to mechanical handling.
Storage: Prepared mixtures were sealed in airtight plastic or self-sealing polyethylene bags to maintain consistent moisture content prior to testing.
2.2.3. Geotechnical Testing Protocols
A comprehensive series of laboratory tests was conducted in accordance with French and international geotechnical standards. The overall testing sequence is illustrated in
Figure 5, which outlines the logical progression from sample preparation to the assessment of mechanical properties.
The geotechnical characterization included particle size analysis (NF EN ISO 17892-4
| [21] | AFNOR (2016) NF EN ISO 17892-4: 2016. Geotechnical investigation and testing – Laboratory testing of soil – Part 4: Determination of particle size distribution. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[21]
), natural water content determination (NF EN ISO 17892-1
| [22] | AFNOR (2015) NF EN ISO 17892-1: 2015. Geotechnical investigation and testing – Laboratory testing of soil – Part 1: Determination of water content. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[22]
), Atterberg limits (NF EN ISO 17892-12
| [23] | AFNOR (2018) NF EN ISO 17892-12: 2018. Geotechnical investigation and testing – Laboratory testing of soil – Part 12: Determination of Atterberg limits. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[23]
), apparent density measurement (NF EN ISO 17892-2
| [24] | AFNOR (2014) NF EN ISO 17892-2. Geotechnical investigation and testing – Laboratory testing of soil – Part 2: Determination of bulk density. Association Française de Normalisation, (AFNOR) Paris. |
[24]
), methylene blue value (NF P 94-068
| [25] | AFNOR (1998) NF P 94-068: 1998. Sols: Reconnaissance et essais – Détermination de la valeur de bleu de méthylène d’un sol ou d’un matériau rocheux – Méthode par essai ponctuel. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[25]
), compaction tests (NF EN 13286-2:2010
| [27] | AFNOR (2010) NF EN 13286-2: 2010. Unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures – Part 2: Test methods for laboratory reference density and water content – Proctor compaction. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[27]
), and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests (NF EN 13286-47:2021
| [28] | AFNOR (2021) NF EN 13286-47: 2021. Unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures – Part 47: Test method for the determination of the California bearing ratio, immediate bearing index and linear swelling. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR), Paris. |
[28]
).
Figure 5. Testing program flowchart.
3. Results
3.1. Geotechnical Characterization of Bar Soil–Crushed Granite Aggregate Mixtures
This section presents the results of geotechnical tests conducted on various mixtures of Bar soil (TB) and crushed granite aggregate from Dan (CG), as described in the formulation methodology. Five distinct mixtures were prepared and tested: Mixture T1 (70% TB + 30% CG), Mixture T2 (60% TB + 40% CG), Mixture T3 (50% TB + 50% CG), Mixture T4 (40% TB + 60% CG), and Mixture T5 (30% TB + 70% CG).
Table 6 presents a summary of the results obtained from the analysis of lithostabilized sandy clay from Tori-Dokanmey, evaluated against the specifications provided in the 1984 CEBTP (Center for Studies and Experimentation in Building and Public Works) guidelines and their 2019 revision
| [31] | CEBTP (1972) Road design manual for tropical countries. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Paris, p. 51. |
| [32] | CEBTP (1984) Practical guide for road design in tropical countries. Ministry of External Relations, Paris, p. 160. |
| [33] | CEBTP (2019) Review of the practical guide for road design in tropical countries. |
[31-33]
.
Table 6. Compliance of Stabilized Mixture Properties with CEBTP (2019) Specifications for Pavement Layers.
Granite Crushed Stone Rate | Passing to 80 µm | optimal dry density ɣd OPM | Optimal water content Wopm | Liquid Limit WL |
- 00% | 48 | 2.00 | 12.1 | 54 |
- 30% | 22 | 2.10 | 6.90 | 34 |
- 40% | 22 | 2.15 | 6.80 | 31 |
- 50% | 16 | 2.17 | 6.5 | 24.8 |
- 60% | 13 | 2.20 | 7.2 | 21.4 |
- 70% | 13 | 2.23 | 7.3 | 19.8 |
CEBTP 1984 revised 2019 | Foundation layer | 10 à 30% | 1.9 à 2.1 | 7 à 13% | ˂ 50 |
Granite Crushed Stone Rate | Plasticity Index IP | ICBR à 95% OPM (optimum) | Observation (Foundation layer) |
- 00% | 22 | 23 | Unfit |
- 30% | 13 | 45 | Suitable |
- 40% | 11 | 51 | Suitable |
- 50% | 9 | 58 | Suitable |
- 60% | 8.4 | 66 | Suitable |
- 70% | 8 | 69 | Suitable |
CEBTP 1984 revised 2019 | Foundation layer | 5 à 20 | ≥30 (25 for traffic T1 and 35 for traffic T4 and traffic T5) | - |
3.2. Geotechnical Characterization of Bar Soil Stabilization Using Crushed Granite and Synergistic Ceramic Waste
3.2.1. Particle Size Analysis
Figure 6. Particle size distribution curves for bar soil stabilized with crushed granite (CG) and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW).
The results of the particle size distribution tests for the different mixtures of soil, crushed granite (CG), and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW) are illustrated in
Figure 6. The curves highlight the evolution of the granulometry with increasing proportions of additives, showing a clear improvement in the grading towards a well-distributed particle size curve and a significant reduction in fines content (< 0.08 mm). The legend indicates the percentage of CG and PCW in each mixture. The dashed lines represent the typical specification envelope for optimal sub-base materials.
The particle size analysis shows that the addition of pulverized ceramic waste (PCW) effectively reduces the fines content (particles ≤ 80 µm) in the stabilized soil mixtures. As illustrated in
Figure 7, the percentage of fines decreases from approximately 34% in the baseline mixture (M1) to approximately 23% in the optimal mixture (M12). This reduction is attributed to the filler effect of the fine ceramic material, which densifies the soil matrix by occupying the voids between larger particles, thereby optimizing the overall particle size distribution. Critically, the fines content of mixtures M5 to M12 falls within the acceptable range of 10% to 30% specified by the CEBTP guidelines for foundation layers. Combined with a 100% pass rate at the 2 mm sieve, this result confirms the classification of the stabilized material as a sandy soil. These findings demonstrate that ceramic waste not only improves the granulometry of the mixture and reduces its porosity but also validates its technical suitability for use in civil engineering applications, particularly in pavement foundation layers.
Figure 7. Fines content (particles ≤ 80 µm) for different soil-granite-ceramic waste mixtures.
3.2.2. Atterberg Limits
The results of the Atterberg tests (
Figure 8) demonstrate the significant impact of incorporating pulverized ceramic waste on the rheology of a mixture composed of lateritic soil (“barre soil”) and crushed granite aggregates. A drastic and systematic reduction in the plasticity index (PI) is observed with increasing ceramic content, with the mixture reaching minimum plasticity at a content of 8% (M11, M12). This attenuation of plastic properties results from a threefold mechanism: 1) the dilution of the active clay fraction of the ferralitic soil by inert ceramic particles, 2) the interposition of these particles, which limits water absorption and the mobility of clay sheets, and 3) the dominant role of the granular skeleton formed by crushed granite, which stiffens the soil matrix. This rheological modification results in reduced affinity for water and increased dimensional stability, thus transforming an initially plastic mixture into a material with improved mechanical characteristics. The addition of ceramic waste therefore proves to be an effective strategy for optimizing the properties of a soil-aggregate mixture, valorizing industrial by-products in a circular economy approach for applications such as road construction techniques or embankments. These results are consistent with prior findings in the literature on ceramic waste stabilization
| [14] | Azevedo, A. R. G., Vieira, C. M. F., Ferreira, W. M., Faria, K. C. P., Pedroti, L. G., & Mendes, B. C. (2020). Potential use of ceramic waste as precursor in the geopolymerization reaction for the production of ceramic roof tiles. Journal of Building Engineering, 29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101156 |
| [16] | Mahmoodi, O., Siad, H., Lachemi, M., Dadsetan, S., & Sahmaran, M. (2021). Development and characterization of binary recycled ceramic tile and brick wastes-based geopolymers at ambient and high temperatures. Construction and Building Materials, 301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124138 |
[14–16]
.
Figure 8. Variation of Atterberg limits (Liquid Limit LL, Plastic Limit PL, and Plasticity Index PI) for the different soil-stabilizer mixtures.
3.2.3. Compaction Characteristics (Modified Proctor Test)
Figure 9. Variation in maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of mixtures.
The results of the modified Proctor compaction test (
Figure 9) show a clear change in compaction characteristics as the ceramic waste content increases. The optimum moisture content (OMC) gradually decreases from 10.9% (M1) to 8.4% (M12), representing a 23% reduction in water requirements for optimum compaction. At the same time, the maximum dry density (MDD) improves significantly, from 2.03 Tm/m³ (M1) to 2.20 Tm/m³ (M12), corresponding to an 8.4% increase in density. This improvement is attributed to the dual role of ceramic waste: it acts as a filler material that optimizes particle size distribution and provides additional granular material that strengthens the skeletal structure. The reduction in OMC corresponds to the decrease in plasticity observed during Atterberg limit tests, while the increase in MDD results from better particle compaction and a reduction in void ratios. All mixtures from M5 meet or exceed the typical density requirements for base course applications, with M9-M12 mixtures exhibiting particularly excellent compaction performance. The combined reduction in water demand and increase in achievable density confirm the effectiveness of ceramic waste in transforming the mixture of bar soil and granite into an optimal material for road construction applications. These findings are consistent with those reported in previous studies
| [1] | A. A. Ajayi-Banji, D. A. Jenyo, M. A. Adegbile, T. D. Akpenpuun, J. Bello, A. O. Ajimo and S. Sujitha. (2018). utilization of ceramic ware waste as complementary aggregate in hollow masonry unit production. AZOJETE 14(1): 41-53. www.azojete.com.ng |
| [2] | Kenna F. and Archbold, P. 2014. Ceramic waste sludge as a partial cement replacement. Civil Engineering Research in Ireland, Queens University Belfast, pp. 1-6. |
| [18] | Allaoui, D., Nadi, M., Hattani, F., Majdoubi, H., Haddaji, Y., Mansouri, S., Oumam, M., Hannache, H., & Manoun, B. (2022). Eco-friendly geopolymer concrete based on metakaolin and ceramics sanitaryware wastes. Ceramics International, 48(23), 34793–34802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.08.068 |
| [19] | Naenudon, S., Wongsa, A., Ekprasert, J., Sata, V., & Chindaprasirt, P. (2023). Enhancing the properties of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete using recycled aggregate from waste ceramic electrical insulator. Journal of Building Engineering, 68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106132 |
[1, 2, 18, 19]
.
3.2.4. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
The results of the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) test (
figure 10) demonstrate a remarkable improvement in the mechanical strength of soil mixtures thanks to the addition of pulverized ceramic waste. The CBR value, measured at 95% of the optimum density according to the modified Proctor method, shows a substantial increase, rising from 34% (M1) to 78% (M12), representing a 129% improvement in bearing capacity.
This significant improvement in CBR values is directly linked to the gradual optimization of the geotechnical properties of the mixture:
1) The reduction in optimal moisture content (from 10.9% to 8.4%) improves stability in saturated conditions,
2) The increase in maximum dry density (from 2.03 to 2.20 Tm/m³) improves particle interlocking and friction,
3) The optimized particle size distribution creates a denser and more cohesive matrix.
CBR values above 60% from M7 indicate excellent performance for subbase materials, while M10-M12 mixes (CBR > 70%) meet the requirements for base course materials for low traffic in flexible pavement construction according to most international standards (which generally require a CBR of 60 to 80% for base courses). These results confirm that the addition of ceramic waste fundamentally transforms the soil mixture into a high-performance construction material, offering superior load-bearing capacity for road foundation applications. Furthermore,
Figure 11 shows that the relationship between dry density and CBR index is not linear. These results are consistent with previous studies
| [11] | Rashad, A. M., Essa, G. M. F., Mosleh, Y. A., & Morsi, W. M. (2023). Valorization of Ceramic Waste Powder for Compressive Strength and Durability of Fly Ash Geopolymer Cement. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-023-08428-x |
| [12] | Bhavsar, J. K., & Panchal, V. (2022). Ceramic Waste Powder as a Partial Substitute of Fly Ash for Geopolymer Concrete Cured at Ambient Temperature. Civil Engineering Journal (Iran), 8(7), 1369–1387. https://doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2022-08-07-05 |
| [17] | Luhar, I., Luhar, S., Abdullah, M. M. A. B., Nabiałek, M., Sandu, A. V., Szmidla, J., Jurczyńska, A., Razak, R. A., Aziz, I. H. A., Jamil, N. H., & Deraman, L. M. (2021). Assessment of the suitability of ceramic waste in geopolymer composites: An appraisal. Materials, 14(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14123279 |
| [20] | Yanti, E. D., Mubarok, L., Subari, Erlangga, B. D., Widyaningsih, E., Jakah, Pratiwi, I., Rinovian, A., Nugroho, T., & Herbudiman, B. (2024). Utilization of various ceramic waste as fine aggregate replacement into fly ash-based geopolymer. Materials Letters, 357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2023.135651 |
[11, 12, 17, 20]
and align with the sub-base performance criteria outlined in the CEBTP guidelines
| [32] | CEBTP (1984) Practical guide for road design in tropical countries. Ministry of External Relations, Paris, p. 160. |
[32]
, revised in
| [33] | CEBTP (2019) Review of the practical guide for road design in tropical countries. |
[33]
.
Figure 10. CBR index at 95% OPM of mixtures.
Figure 11. Relationship between the CBR index at 95% of the OPM and the maximum dry density of the mixtures.
4. Discussion
4.1. Optimization Through Combined Stabilization: A Synergistic Approach
This study demonstrates that the optimal stabilization of bar soil is achieved not through single additives but through the strategic combination of crushed granite (CG) and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW). The experimental results reveal a remarkable synergy between these two materials, creating a composite that outperforms mixtures using either component alone.
4.1.1. Particle Size Optimization and Fines Control
The granulometric optimization achieved through combined stabilization represents a significant advancement over conventional approaches. While CG alone reduces fines content drastically (from 48% to 13%), this overshooting may create a gap-graded material susceptible to particle segregation. The incorporation of PCW provides the missing medium-sized particles, resulting in a well-graded distribution with 23-36% fines. This optimized gradation enhances both cohesion and internal friction, creating an ideal skeleton for load transmission. The PCW particles act as perfect intermediaries, bridging the large CG particles and fine soil fractions, thus maximizing particle interlock and density.
4.1.2. Enhanced Stability Through Plasticity Control
The synergistic effect on plasticity reduction is particularly noteworthy. Where 70% CG alone achieves a PI of 8, the combination of merely 25% CG with 12.5% PCW accomplishes the same reduction—representing a 64% reduction in CG requirement. This dramatic efficiency improvement stems from the dual action mechanism: CG provides the granular skeleton while PCW's fine, non-plastic particles coat the clay minerals, reducing their water affinity and swelling potential. This combined action creates a moisture-insensitive matrix ideal for tropical environments where bar soils typically exhibit problematic volume changes.
4.1.3. Density Maximization and Water Content Reduction
The compaction characteristics reveal another dimension of the optimization. The mixture M12 (25% CG + 12.5% PCW) achieves a maximum dry density of 2.20 g/cm³, nearly matching the 2.23 g/cm³ obtained with 70% CG alone. This represents a 64% reduction in CG usage while maintaining comparable density performance. The mechanism involves the superior filling capability of the ceramic waste, whose particle size distribution is ideally suited to occupy the voids between larger CG particles. Concurrently, the optimum moisture content reduction from 10.9% to 8.4% demonstrates improved water efficiency, a critical factor in field compaction operations and long-term stability.
4.1.4. Superior Mechanical Performance Through Synergy
The most compelling evidence for optimization emerges from the CBR results. The combination of 25% CG with 12.5% PCW achieves a CBR of 78%, surpassing the 69% obtained with 70% CG alone. This represents not only a 13% improvement in bearing capacity but also a 64% reduction in CG requirement. The synergy is attributed to three complementary mechanisms: (1) the angular CG particles creating a strong skeletal framework, (2) the PCW fines optimizing the packing density and providing micro-reinforcement, and (3) potential pozzolanic reactions between the ceramic particles and soil minerals creating secondary cementation. This triple action results in a material that exceeds the performance expected from simple mixture rules.
Figure 12 provides a comparative visualization of the impact of different treatments on key material properties.
Figure 12. Comparative figure illustrating key performance indicators.
4.2. Implications for Sustainable Construction
The optimized mixtures demonstrate compelling advantages for sustainable infrastructure development. The reduction in CG requirement from 70% to 25% represents significant conservation of natural quarry resources. Simultaneously, the incorporation of 12.5% PCW provides a productive outlet for ceramic industry waste, addressing environmental concerns associated with its disposal
| [7] | Bansal, H., Sidhu, G. S. (2016). Influence of Waste Marble Powder on Characteristics of Clayey Soil, International Journal of Science and Research, Vol. 5, Issue 8. |
| [10] | Kuan, P., Q. Hongxia, and C. Kefan. 2020. Reliability analysis of freeze-thaw damage of recycled ceramic powder concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 32 (9): 05020008. |
| [13] | Sarkar, M., & Dana, K. (2021). Partial replacement of metakaolin with red ceramic waste in geopolymer. Ceramics International, 47(3), 3473–3483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.09.191 |
[7, 10, 13]
. From a practical perspective, the reduced water content requirement offers operational advantages in regions with limited water availability, while the enhanced CBR values allow for reduced pavement thicknesses in road construction projects.
This optimized stabilization approach transforms problematic bar soil into a high-performance construction material while promoting resource conservation and waste utilization—addressing both technical and environmental challenges in modern geotechnical engineering.
5. Conclusion
This study successfully establishes a sustainable and high-performance stabilization strategy for clayey ferralitic soils (bar soil) by synergistically combining crushed granite (CG) with pulverized ceramic waste (PCW). The key finding is that an optimized mixture with 25% CG and 12.5% PCW outperforms a conventional mixture requiring 70% granite, achieving a 64% reduction in the consumption of this natural resource.
The technical excellence of this approach is confirmed by its superior geotechnical properties:
1) High Strength: A California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of 78%, indicating exceptional bearing capacity for sub-base and base layers.
2) Optimal Gradation: A fines content (<80 µm) maintained within the ideal range (23-36%) for foundation materials.
3) Low Plasticity: A reduced plasticity index (IP=8), ensuring minimal susceptibility to water and volume change.
4) High Density: A maximum dry density of 2.20 g/cm³, facilitating strong, durable compaction.
These improvements result from a synergistic mechanism where granite aggregates provide a robust structural skeleton and ceramic fines act as a filler and pozzolan, densifying the matrix and enhancing stability.
This research demonstrates a viable circular economy model, offering triple sustainability benefits:
1) Environmental: Valorizes industrial waste (PCW) and drastically reduces the quarrying of natural granite.
2) Economic: Lowers material costs by utilizing a free waste product and reduces transport emissions through local sourcing.
3) Technical: Transforms a problematic local soil into a high-quality, specification-compliant construction material.
For practicing engineers, these findings provide a practical guideline for designing effective, economical, and sustainable pavement layers in resource-limited settings. Future work should focus on long-term durability studies and exploring other industrial wastes that can offer similar synergistic benefits.
Abbreviations
PCW | Pulverized Ceramic Waste |
CBR | California Bearing Ratio |
CG | Crushed Granite |
MDD | Maximum Dry Density |
OMC | Optimum Moisture Content |
CEBTP | Center for Studies and Experimentation in Building and Public Works |
BS | Bar Soil |
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all the laboratory technicians at the Laboratory of Applied Energy and Mechanics (LEMA), University of Abomey-Calavi (UAC), Benin; at SNERTP (National Society for Testing and Research in Public Works); and at X-TECHLAB, Sèmè City, Benin, for their consistent support and technical assistance in performing the geotechnical, mineralogical, and mechanical tests.
Author Contributions
Coovi Rocambols Thede Agbelele: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization
Valery Kouandete Doko: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Methodology
Boris Ganmavo: Writing – review & editing
Mohamed Gibigaye: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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APA Style
Agbelele, C. R. T., Doko, V. K., Ganmavo, B., Gibigaye, M. (2025). Optimization of Clayey Ferralitic Soil Stabilization with Crushed Granite and Pulverized Ceramic Waste Through a Comparative Experimental Approach. International Journal of Materials Science and Applications, 14(5), 224-238. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15
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Agbelele, C. R. T.; Doko, V. K.; Ganmavo, B.; Gibigaye, M. Optimization of Clayey Ferralitic Soil Stabilization with Crushed Granite and Pulverized Ceramic Waste Through a Comparative Experimental Approach. Int. J. Mater. Sci. Appl. 2025, 14(5), 224-238. doi: 10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15
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Agbelele CRT, Doko VK, Ganmavo B, Gibigaye M. Optimization of Clayey Ferralitic Soil Stabilization with Crushed Granite and Pulverized Ceramic Waste Through a Comparative Experimental Approach. Int J Mater Sci Appl. 2025;14(5):224-238. doi: 10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15
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@article{10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15,
author = {Coovi Rocambols Thede Agbelele and Valery Kouandete Doko and Boris Ganmavo and Mohamed Gibigaye},
title = {Optimization of Clayey Ferralitic Soil Stabilization with Crushed Granite and Pulverized Ceramic Waste Through a Comparative Experimental Approach
},
journal = {International Journal of Materials Science and Applications},
volume = {14},
number = {5},
pages = {224-238},
doi = {10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijmsa.20251405.15},
abstract = {This study investigates the synergistic stabilization of clayey ferralitic soil (bar soil) from southern Benin using a combination of crushed granite (CG) and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW). The aim was to develop a sustainable alternative to conventional high-percentage granite stabilization by valorizing industrial waste. Twelve soil mixtures were formulated with varying proportions of CG (10–25%) and PCW (7.5–12.5%). Their performance was evaluated through standardized geotechnical tests, including particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, Modified Proctor compaction, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The results indicate that the incorporation of PCW significantly improves the soil's properties: it reduces the fines content and plasticity index, lowers the optimum moisture content, and increases the maximum dry density and bearing capacity, yielding a CBR value as high as 78%. The optimal mixture (25% CG + 12.5% PCW) exceeded the performance of a conventional mix with 70% CG, enabling a 64% reduction in granite consumption. This approach demonstrates a technically sound and sustainable stabilization strategy, enhancing particle size distribution and hydraulic stability while providing an eco-friendly and economical solution for constructing pavement foundation and base layers in tropical regions.
},
year = {2025}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Optimization of Clayey Ferralitic Soil Stabilization with Crushed Granite and Pulverized Ceramic Waste Through a Comparative Experimental Approach
AU - Coovi Rocambols Thede Agbelele
AU - Valery Kouandete Doko
AU - Boris Ganmavo
AU - Mohamed Gibigaye
Y1 - 2025/10/17
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15
DO - 10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15
T2 - International Journal of Materials Science and Applications
JF - International Journal of Materials Science and Applications
JO - International Journal of Materials Science and Applications
SP - 224
EP - 238
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2327-2643
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijmsa.20251405.15
AB - This study investigates the synergistic stabilization of clayey ferralitic soil (bar soil) from southern Benin using a combination of crushed granite (CG) and pulverized ceramic waste (PCW). The aim was to develop a sustainable alternative to conventional high-percentage granite stabilization by valorizing industrial waste. Twelve soil mixtures were formulated with varying proportions of CG (10–25%) and PCW (7.5–12.5%). Their performance was evaluated through standardized geotechnical tests, including particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, Modified Proctor compaction, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). The results indicate that the incorporation of PCW significantly improves the soil's properties: it reduces the fines content and plasticity index, lowers the optimum moisture content, and increases the maximum dry density and bearing capacity, yielding a CBR value as high as 78%. The optimal mixture (25% CG + 12.5% PCW) exceeded the performance of a conventional mix with 70% CG, enabling a 64% reduction in granite consumption. This approach demonstrates a technically sound and sustainable stabilization strategy, enhancing particle size distribution and hydraulic stability while providing an eco-friendly and economical solution for constructing pavement foundation and base layers in tropical regions.
VL - 14
IS - 5
ER -
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